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Background to the problem Dutch society demonstrates a development which is apparent in many societies in the 21st century; it is becoming ethnically heterogeneous. This means that children who are secondlanguage speakers of Dutch are learning English, a core curriculum subject, through the medium of the Dutch language. Research questions What are the consequences of this for the individual learner and the class situation?Is a bi-lingual background a help or a hindrance when acquiring further language competences. Does the home situation facilitate or impede the learner? Additionally, how should the TEFL professional respond to this situation in terms of methodology, use of the Dutch language, subject matter and assessment? Method of approach A group of ethnic minority students at Fontys University of Professional Education was interviewed. The interviews were subjected to qualitative analysis. To ensure triangulation lecturers involved in teaching English at F.U.P.E. were asked to fill in a questionnaire on their teaching approach to Dutch second language English learners. Thier response was quantitatively and qualitatively analysed. Findings and conclusions The students encountered surprisingly few problems. Their bi-lingualism and home situation were not a constraint in their English language development. TEFL professionals should bear the heterogeneous classroom in mind when developing courses and lesson material. The introduction to English at primary school level and the assessment of DL2 learners require further research.
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In 1986, English became a compulsory subject in primary education in The Netherlands1. While secondary schools have, by law, been required to offer English since 1863 the articulation between Dutch primary and secondary education levels of English language teaching has always been problematic to the point it has been referred to as a connection problem. The term ‘articulation between levels’ has been used frequently to refer to the connection between parts of the language education system, such as between primary and secondary education and between secondary and tertiary education. In particular the group of Richard Lambert at the National Foreign language centre in Washington have promoted research on articulation between levels. This study focusses on the connection between primary and secondary education and the possibility to improve the articulation between these levels with regard to the English teaching in The Netherlands.
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Multilingualism is common in educational settings across Europe and beyond, yet many language teachers report feeling unprepared to valorise the different languages students bring to their classrooms. Multilingual language learning interventions – activities that intentionally draw on students' multilingual repertoires – offer one way to enhance language learning. Research suggests that such interventions can support students' language proficiency and cross-linguistic awareness, particularly in upper primary, secondary and university contexts. Nevertheless, no systematic literature review has yet synthesised interventions fostering language proficiency and cross-linguistic awareness in educational settings for language learners aged ten or older. Consequently, this systematic review of 17 studies seeks insights into (1) types of multilingual language learning interventions fostering language proficiency and cross-linguistic awareness for this group of language learners, and (2) the outcomes of these intervention types. Our narrative analyses identified three types of multilingual language-learning interventions with outcomes related to language proficiency and/or cross-linguistic awareness: (1) Creating multilingual space in language learning, (2) Raising cross-linguistic awareness with structured tasks and (3) Exploiting multilingual repertoires to support language skills. Our review offers practical insights and directions for further research on using students' multilingual repertoires in upper primary, secondary and university language learning settings.
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Worldwide, pupils with migrant backgrounds do not participate in school STEM subjects as successfully as their peers. Migrant pupils’ subject-specific language proficiency lags behind, which hinders participation and learning. Primary teachers experience difficulty in teaching STEM as well as promoting required language development. This study investigates how a professional development program (PDP) focusing on inclusive STEM teaching can promote teacher learning of language-promoting strategies (promoting interaction, scaffolding language and using multilingual resources). Participants were five case study teachers in multilingual schools in the Netherlands (N = 2), Sweden (N = 1) and Norway (N = 2), who taught in primary classrooms with migrant pupils. The PDP focused on three STEM units (sound, maintenance, plant growth) and language-promoting strategies. To trace teachers’ learning, three interviews were conducted with each of the five teachers (one after each unit). The teachers also filled in digital logs (one after each unit). The interviews showed positive changes in teachers’ awareness, beliefs and attitudes towards language-supporting strategies. However, changes in practice and intentions for practice were reported to a lesser extent. This study shows that a PDP can be an effective starting point for teacher learning regarding inclusive STEM teaching. It also illuminates possible enablers (e.g., fostering language awareness) or hinderers (e.g., teachers’ limited STEM knowledge) to be considered in future PDP design.
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Augmented Reality (AR) is a relatively new technology and is increasingly being posited as an educational game-changer, particularly - but not exclusively - in language learning. On a scale where the virtual and real world sit at opposite ends of the spectrum, AR sits in-between, combining real world elements with virtual overlays. Research suggests that an obstacle to English language learning in countries where English is not the first language (EFL) is a "...lack of authentic situations outside of the classroom for practising English communication skills" [1]. AR technology, by combining elements of real-life and virtual content could potentially overcome some of these limitations. However, as with all technologies, the use of AR in the classroom is not only confined to the learner, but also largely dependent on the willingness and skills of teachers to utilise it effectively. This study hopes to shed some light on the possible uses, benefits, and challenges that AR may present to the field of EFL learning in an Egyptian International Baccalaureate (IB) school.
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Sociocultural and dialogic theories of education have identified the need to integrate both pedagogical content and language knowledge into teachers’ professional development to promote effective interaction with students about subject content. In this intervention study, a meta-perspective on language was developed to understand how experienced teacher educators (N = 29) conceptualize ongoing language development in professional learning and teaching (referred to as language-developing learning in this study) as part of their pedagogical content knowledge. The data were analysed using content analysis. Language-developing learning was mainly conceived as teacher-oriented professional development. In this process, the language aspect was regarded not only as a tool that applies regulatory and explanatory language but also as a target that connects academic knowledge and interpersonally oriented language. The results increase our awareness of teacher educators’ practical knowledge of academic and interpersonal language in specific disciplinary contexts of teacher professional development in higher education.
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Part 1 of English as a Medium of Learning in Schools
addresses key approaches and terminology related to
teaching and learning subjects through English in primary
and secondary schools. In addition, it presents a range of
benefits and some challenges that teachers and learners
face in EML contexts. Benefits include the development
of teacher and learner language; active and interactive
subject teaching and learning; effective thinking in both
content and language, and subject resources that widen
cultural perspectives. Challenges focus on the language
demands of subject content, knowledge of subject
content and rethinking how to teach subjects in EML
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The current study investigated how individual differences among children affect the added value of social robots for teaching second language (L2) vocabulary to young children. Specifically, we investigated the moderating role of three individual child characteristics deemed relevant for language learning: first language (L1) vocabulary knowledge, phonological memory, and selective attention. We expected children low in these abilities to particularly benefit from being assisted by a robot in a vocabulary training. An L2 English vocabulary training intervention consisting of seven sessions was administered to 193 monolingual Dutch five-year-old children over a three- to four-week period. Children were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions: 1) a tablet only, 2) a tablet and a robot that used deictic (pointing) gestures (the no-iconic-gestures condition), or 3) a tablet and a robot that used both deictic and iconic gestures (i.e., gestures depicting the target word; the iconic-gestures condition). There also was a control condition in which children did not receive a vocabulary training, but played dancing games with the robot. L2 word knowledge was measured directly after the training and two to four weeks later. In these post-tests, children in the experimental conditions outperformed children in the control condition on word knowledge, but there were no differences between the three experimental conditions. Several moderation effects were found. The robot's presence particularly benefited children with larger L1 vocabularies or poorer phonological memory, while children with smaller L1 vocabularies or better phonological memory performed better in the tablet-only condition. Children with larger L1 vocabularies and better phonological memory performed better in the no-iconic-gestures condition than in the iconic-gestures condition, while children with better selective attention performed better in the iconic-gestures condition than the no-iconic-gestures condition. Together, the results showed that the effects of the robot and its gestures differ across children, which should be taken into account when designing and evaluating robot-assisted L2 teaching interventions.
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In C. J. Kellett Bidoli & E. Ochse (eds.) English in International Deaf Communication
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Part 2 of English as a Medium of Learning in Schools
examines effective ways of delivering EML in primary and
secondary schools. It explores specific language that
teachers need in order to explain subject concepts, to ask
questions, and to respond, manage and model language for
EML lessons. Planning for EML, providing support strategies
for learners and evaluating subject and language learning,
are discussed with a range of examples for teachers to use
or adapt. Further reading material is also recommended.
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