In our highly digitalized society, cybercrime has become a common crime. However, because research into cybercriminals is in its infancy, our knowledge about cybercriminals is still limited. One of the main considerations is whether cybercriminals have higher intellectual capabilities than traditional criminals or even the general population. Although criminological studies clearly show that traditional criminals have lower intellectual capabilities, little is known about the relationship between cybercrime and intelligence. The current study adds to the literature by exploring the relationship between CITO-test scores and cybercrime in the Netherlands. The CITO final test is a standardized test for primary school students - usually taken at the age of 11 or 12 - and highly correlated with IQ-scores. Data from Statistics Netherlands were used to compare CITO-test scores of 143 apprehended cybercriminals with those of 143 apprehended traditional criminals and 143 non-criminals, matched on age, sex, and country of birth. Ordinary Least Squares regression analyses were used to compare CITO test scores between cybercriminals, traditional criminals, and non-criminals. Additionally, a discordant sibling design was used to control for unmeasured confounding by family factors. Findings reveal that cybercriminals have significantly higher CITO test scores compared to traditional criminals and significantly lower CITO test scores compared to non-criminals.
DOCUMENT
In this article, the author will question the seemingly obvious boundary between civil disobedience, as conceptualised by Rawls and Arendt, and several examples of criminal, or simply annoying, activities which don't meet their criteria, such as the case of the ‘Top 50'. The ‘Top 50' are multi-problem Dutch-Caribbean men, who refuse to adapt to predominant norms in Dutch society. IThe author argues that political aspects of their behaviour should be acknowledged, even if they engage in criminal behaviour and don't present explicit political goals. Firstly, she questions the way in which Rawls based his definition on a centralistic conception of governmental power and contrast it with Foucault's conception of normalising power, in which power is diffuse and cannot be restricted to the enactment of formal laws. Secondly, she discusses what the minimum requirements are to be able to classifyacts as civil disobedience. Rawls and Arendt draw a clear line between criminal behaviour and civil disobedience, but their requirements may be too strict. We might miss signals of injustice if actions that do not meet these criteria are excluded from the political discourse. The conclusion is that comparing Arendt's and Rawls' conception of civil disobedience with the behaviour of a marginal migrant group may be useful in questioning the boundaries of this concept and in making it more inclusive. A wider conception of civil disobedience may help to explain the meaning of deviant behaviour in terms of social critique and to challenge the traditional understanding of civil disobedience.
DOCUMENT
If we look back to society and want to restore it as it was just before the Corona outbreak, we need exactly everyone who participated then. So also shareholders, storytellers, healthcare workers and even criminals. There was a balance. With fewer criminals, there would be less police force, and consequently other “players” would take their chances to cross the line between justice and injustice somewhere else, which in return would demand more control (police), etc. In other words, it’s an equilibrium.
MULTIFILE
While traditional crime rates are decreasing, cybercrime is on the rise. As a result, the criminal justice system is increasingly dealing with criminals committing cyber-dependent crimes. However, to date there are no effective interventions to prevent recidivism in this type of offenders. Dutch authorities have developed an intervention program, called Hack_Right. Hack_Right is an alternative criminal justice program for young first-offenders of cyber-dependent crimes. In order to prevent recidivism, this program places participants in organizations where they are taught about ethical hacking, complete (technical) assignments and reflect on their offense. In this study, we have evaluated the Hack_Right program and the pilot interventions carried out thus far. By examining the program theory (program evaluation) and implementation of the intervention (process evaluation), the study adds to the scarce literature about cybercrime interventions. During the study, two qualitative research methods have been applied: 1) document analysis and 2) interviews with intervention developers, imposers, implementers and participants. In addition to the observation that the scientific basis for linking specific criminogenic factors to cybercriminals is still fragile, the article concludes that the theoretical base and program integrity of Hack_Right need to be further developed in order to adhere to principles of effective interventions.
DOCUMENT
This dissertation focuses on the question how money mules are recruited and which mechanisms play a role. Money mules are people who receive money from victims of online fraud. They are an indispensable link in the commission of financial-economic cybercrimes, such as phishing and bank helpdesk fraud, because they break the financial trail from victims to core members. The crucial role of money mules in the crime script and the possible consequences for young money mules themselves make them a valuable target group for scientific research. Almost no empirical research has been conducted into money mules and the involvement mechanisms of cybercrime. However, this knowledge is necessary for the development and application of prevention measures: interventions aimed at money mules disrupt the execution of various forms of online fraud, which can reduce victimization of cybercrime among citizens and businesses. In total, the dissertation consists of six empirical chapters, in which different research methods were used. This includes questionnaires and expert interviews, but also more unique and innovative methods such as online field experiments and analysis of police investigations into cybercriminal networks. The dissertation shows that money mules - still - form a crucial link in the world of financial-economic cybercrime. It is clear that this phenomenon manifests itself in different ways over time: online bank accounts, international bank accounts and crypto wallets are currently popular among cybercriminal networks because they offer even more anonymity than bank accounts at large traditional banks. This also means that money mules are also recruited for their identification cards instead of their bank card, which offenders use to open up accounts for themselves. It can be concluded that the social environment of money mules forms a criminal opportunity structure. Money mules are approached via-via and actively addressed; online on social media such as Instagram and Telegram but also offline on the street, at school or at the metro station. Social relationships therefore offer cybercriminal networks access to co-offenders, including money mules, and can explain why young people become involved in the world of cybercrime. Financial motivations play a role here, because money mules often look up to the luxurious lifestyle of criminals and give up bank account details in exchange for compensation. Risk perceptions regarding the likelihood of being caught and the consequences of money muling are low and money mules justify the criminal behavior. In addition to financial considerations, some recruiters also exert pressure or even threaten with violence. This reflects the heterogeneous nature of the target group and makes it clear that various involvement mechanisms play a role.
LINK
This meta-analysis investigated the long term effects of prevention programs conducted during early and middle childhood on criminal offending during adulthood. The analyses included 3611 participants in 9 programs. The effect size for adult criminal offending was significant, but small in magnitude (OR=1.26; 95% CI=1.06-1.50, p=.011). The effects of the programs on positive outcomes (academic attainment and involvement in productive activity, such as being engaged in school or work) were somewhat larger and more consistent than effects on crime (OR=1.36, 95% CI=1.20-1.55, p<.001). Several participant and program characteristics moderated the effectiveness of (early) prevention. Children who were more at-risk and those from a lower SES benefited more. Shorter, but more intensive programs, and programs that focus on social and behavioral skills, rather than on academic skills or family support, tend to produce larger effects. Taken together, these results indicate that early prevention programs can help put children on a more positive developmental trajectory that is maintained into adulthood, but there is still no convincing evidence that they can prevent adult crime. Implications of the findings for research, policy and clinical practice are discussed.
DOCUMENT
Achtergrond Online criminaliteit is een veelvoorkomende vorm van criminaliteit geworden. Bij online criminaliteit – en in het bijzonder bij vormen van cybercriminaliteit zoals hacken – wordt snel gedacht aan internationaal opererende dadersgroepen die hun aanvallen in Nederland uitvoeren vanuit verre landen met alle gevolgen van dien voor de opsporing en vervolging van daders. Een (aanzienlijk) deel van de daders van cybercriminaliteit bevindt zich echter ook in Nederland. De gevolgen van de door deze dadergroep gepleegde delicten kunnen groot zijn. Er zijn op dit moment geen bewezen effectieve interventies voor daders van online criminaliteit. Als reactie op de grote instroom van (jonge) cyberverdachten hebben het Openbaar Ministerie (OM) en de Nationale Politie de interventie Hack_Right ontwikkeld. Hack_Right is een alternatief of aanvullend straftraject voor jeugdige daders (12 tot 23 jaar) die hun eerste delict cybercriminaliteit plegen. Het is de eerste interventie in Nederland die zich richt op (jonge) cybercriminelen en is daarmee een unieke interventie. Onderzoeksvragen en ‑methoden Onderhavig onderzoek heeft tot doel om de interventie Hack_Right en de tot nu toe uitgevoerde trajecten te evalueren. Omdat Hack_Right pas relatief kort loopt en aan het einde van de dataverzamelingsperiode van dit onderzoek veertien casussen waren afgerond, is het nog te vroeg voor een effectevaluatie. Wel kan er een plan- en procesevaluatie worden uitgevoerd. De volgende onderzoeksvragen staan in het onderzoek centraal: (1) Wat is Hack_Right en hoe is Hack_Right theoretisch onderbouwd? (2) Hoe zijn de tot nu toe uitgevoerde Hack_Right trajecten verlopen? (3) Hoe hebben alle betrokkenen de tot nu toe uitgevoerde Hack_Right-trajecten ervaren? Voor de evaluatie van Hack_Right zijn kwalitatieve onderzoeksmethoden gebruikt. Kwalitatief onderzoek is een geschikte methode om de werkelijkheid van binnenuit te bestuderen en zodoende zicht te krijgen op de verschillende processen die een rol spelen bij een fenomeen. Daarnaast is er maar een klein aantal deelnemers dat Hack_Right tot op heden heeft gevolgd, waardoor kwantitatief onderzoek nog niet haalbaar is. De eerste onderzoeksmethode is documentanalyse. Het doel van de documentanalyse is om inzicht te krijgen in de plannen van Hack_Right, zoals die op papier staan. Zo kan worden onderzocht wat Hack_Right is, hoe Hack_Right theoretisch is onderbouwd en welke trajecten tot nu toe zijn uitgevoerd. Verschillende documenten zijn hiervoor geraadpleegd. De tweede onderzoeksmethode is het interviewen van bij de uitvoering van Hack_Right betrokken personen. Het doel van de interviews was drieledig. Ten eerste was het doel om in aanvulling op de beleidsdocumenten een beter inzicht te krijgen in de plannen omtrent Hack_Right. Een tweede doel was om inzicht te krijgen in het verloop van de tot nu toe uitgevoerde Hack_Right-trajecten. Het derde doel van de interviews was om de ervaringen met Hack_Right van alle betrokkenen in kaart te brengen. In totaal zijn 28 interviews afgenomen met respondenten die op verschillende manieren betrokken zijn bij de Hack_Right interventie: twee interventieontwikkelaars, vijf toewijzers, elf uitvoerders en tien deelnemers.
DOCUMENT
Cybercrime as a service is lowering the barrier to entry for crime. Aspiring criminals can access cybercrime services through the clear web using search engines. One such cybercrime service is booters, web platforms that offer affordable distributed denial of service attacks for hire. Law enforcement agencies have tried to counter this trend by running online ad campaigns on platforms like Google. For these campaigns to effectively divert and deter potential cybercriminals, they must first reach the intended audience. Yet, it remains uncertain whether this is the case. This study assesses Google online search data from two campaigns deployed in the Netherlands in 2021 to determine whether the campaigns actually reached potential cybercriminals. The results indicate that certain online searches likely had criminal intent, implying that the campaigns – to some extent – successfully reached the intended population. Furthermore, the findings reveal that online searches can serve to identify active booters, providing valuable assistance to law enforcement agencies in taking down such services.
DOCUMENT
Doelstellingen De mate van betrokkenheid van jonge gebruikers bij wervingsadvertenties voor geldezels op Instagram onderzoeken. Methoden Drie advertenties die de belangrijkste mechanismen voor betrokkenheid bij cybercriminaliteit weerspiegelen en gericht waren op Nederlandse gebruikersclusters werden op twee Instagram-plaatsingen geplaatst. Door middel van dit quasi-experimentele 3 × 2 factorial design konden we het bereik en de weergaven van de advertenties, de doorklikratio's, het geslacht van de deelnemers en de temporele verdelingen van de gebruikersbetrokkenheid analyseren. Resultaten De analyse toont aan dat tot 3% van de jonge gebruikers zich bezighield met de advertenties, vooral met advertenties die een luxe levensstijl promoten en neutralisatietechnieken gebruiken. Mannen waren vaker betrokken en 's nachts werd er meer geklikt. Conclusies Sommige jonge Instagram-gebruikers lijken geneigd om geld te verdienen via hun bankpas en lopen het risico om online betrokken te raken bij cybercriminaliteit. We moedigen toekomstig onderzoek aan om het gebruik van sociale media in criminologische studies verder te onderzoeken. ENGLISH Objectives Examine the level of engagement of young users with money mule recruitment ads on Instagram. Methods Three ads reflecting key cybercrime involvement mechanisms and targeting Dutch user clusters were run on two Instagram placements. By means of this quasi-experimental 3 × 2 factorial design, we were able to analyze the reach and views of the ads, click-through rates, gender of the participants, and temporal distributions of user engagement. Results Mimicking actual recruitment environments, analysis shows that up to 3% of young users engaged with the ads, especially those promoting a luxury lifestyle and using neutralization techniques. Men were more likely to engage, and click-through rates were higher at night. Conclusions Some young Instagram users seem prone to making money through their bank cards and risk becoming involved in cybercrime online. We encourage future research to explore further the use of social media in criminological studies. This is a post-peer-review, pre-copyedit version of an article published in Journal of Experimental Criminology. The final authenticated version is available online at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-022-09537-7
DOCUMENT
This article examines the network structure, criminal cooperation, and external interactions of cybercriminal networks. Its contribution is empirical and inductive. The core of this study involved carrying out 10 case analyses on closed cybercrime investigations – all with financial motivations on the part of the offenders - in the UK and beyond. Each analysis involved investigator interview and access to unpublished law enforcement files. The comparison of these cases resulted in a wide range of findings on these cybercriminal networks, including: a common division between the scam/attack components and the money components; the presence of offline/local elements; a broad, and sometimes blurred, spectrum of cybercriminal behaviour and organisation. An overarching theme across the cases that we observe is that cybercriminal business models are relatively stable.
DOCUMENT
