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Thermal comfort in urban green spaces: a survey on a Dutch university campus.

Influence of blue-green roofs on surface temperature and indoor temperature on building scale

Blue-green roofs have been utilized and studied for their enhanced water storage capacity compared to conventional roofs or extensive green roofs. Nonetheless, research about the thermal effect of blue-green roofs is lacking. The goal of this research is to study the thermal effect of blue-green roofs in order to assess their potential for shielding the indoor environment from outdoor temperature extremes (cold- and heat-waves). In this field study, we examined the differences between blue-green roofs and conventional gravel roofs from the perspective of the roof surface temperatures and the indoor temperatures in the city of Amsterdam for late 20th century buildings. Temperature sensor (iButtons) values indicate that outside surface temperatures for blue-green roofs are lower in summer and fluctuate less during the whole year than temperatures of conventional roofs. Results show that for three warm periods during summer in 2021 surface substrate temperatures peaked on average 5°C higher for gravel roofs than for blue-green roofs. Second, during both warm and cold periods, the temperature inside the water crate layer was more stable than the roof surface temperatures. During a cold period in winter, minimum water crate layer temperatures remained 3.0 o C higher than other outdoor surface temperatures. Finally, also the variation of the indoor temperature fluctuations of locations with and without blue-green roofs have been studied. Locations with blue-green roofs are less sensitive to outside air temperature changes, as daily temperature fluctuations (standard deviations) were systematically lower compared to conventional roofs for both warm and cold periods.

Assessment of thermally comfortable urban spaces in Amsterdam during hot summer days

Since it is insufficiently clear to urban planners in the Netherlands to what extent design measures can reduce heat stress and which urban spaces are most comfortable, this study evaluates the impact of shading, urban water, and urban green on the thermal comfort of urban spaces during hot summer afternoons. The methods used include field surveys, meteorological measurements, and assessment of the PET (physiological equivalent temperature). In total, 21 locations in Amsterdam (shaded and sunny locations in parks, streets, squares, and near water bodies) were investigated. Measurements show a reduction in PET of 12 to 22 °C in spaces shaded by trees and buildings compared to sunlit areas, while water bodies and grass reduce the PET up to 4 °C maximum compared to impervious areas. Differences in air temperature between the locations are generally small and it is concluded that shading, water and grass reduce the air temperature by roughly 1 °C. The surveys (n = 1928) indicate that especially shaded areas are perceived cooler and more comfortable than sunlit locations, whereas urban spaces near water or green spaces (grass) were not perceived as cooler or thermally more comfortable. The results of this study highlight the importance of shading in urban design to reduce heat stress. The paper also discusses the differences between meteorological observations and field surveys for planning and designing cool and comfortable urban spaces. Meteorological measurements provide measurable quantities which are especially useful for setting or meeting target values or guidelines in reducing urban heat in practice.

Cool Towns Heat Stress Measurement Protocol

Cities are confronted with more frequent heatwaves of increasing intensity discouraging people from using urban open spaces that are part of their daily lives. Climate proofing cities is an incremental process that should begin where it is needed using the most cost-efficient solutions to mitigate heat stress. However, for this to be achieved the factors that influence the thermal comfort of users, such as the layout of local spaces, their function and the way people use them needs to be identified first. There is currently little evidence available on the effectiveness of heat stress interventions in different types of urban space.The Cool Towns Heat Stress Measurement Protocol provides basic guidance to enable a full Thermal Comfort Assessment (TCA) to be conducted at street-level. Those involved in implementing climate adaptation strategies in urban areas, such as in redevelopments will find practical support to identify places where heat stress may be an issue and suggestions for effective mitigation measures. For others, such as project developers, and spatial designers such as landscape architects and urban planners it provides practical instructions on how to evaluate and provide evidence-based justification for the selection of different cooling interventions for example trees, water features, and shade sails, for climate proofing urban areas.

Cool Towns Intervention Catalogue

Built environments are increasingly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. Most European towns and cities have developed horizontally over time but are currently in the process of further densification. High-rise developments are being built within city boundaries at an unprecedented rate to accommodate a growing urban population. This densification contributes to the Urban Heat Island phenomenon and can increase the frequency and duration of extreme heat events locally. These new build-up areas, in common with historic city centres, consist mainly of solid surfaces often lacking open green urban spaces.The Intervention Catalogue is the third publication in a series produced by the Cool Towns project and has been designed as a resource for decision makers, urban planners, landscape architects, environmental consultants, elected members and anyone else considering how to mitigate heat stress and increase thermal comfort in urban areas. Technical information on the effectiveness of the full array of intervention types from trees to water features, shading sails to green walls, has been assessed for their heat stress mitigation properties, expressed in Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET). The results shown in factsheets will help the process of making an informed, evidence based, choice so that the most appropriate intervention for the specific spatial situation can be identified.

The Urban Heat Atlas

With increase in awareness of the risks posed by climate change and increasingly severe weather events, attention has turned to the need for urgent action. While strategies to respond to flooding and drought are well-established, the effects - and effective response - to heat waves is much less understood. As heat waves become more frequent, longer-lasting and more intense, the Cool Towns project provides cities and municipalities with the knowledge and tools to become heat resilient. The first step to developing effective heat adaptation strategies is identifying which areas in the city experience the most heat stress and who are the residents most affected. This enables decision-makers to prioritise heat adaptation measures and develop a city-wide strategy.The Urban Heat Atlas is the result of four years of research. It contains a collection of heat related maps covering more than 40,000 hectares of urban areas in ten municipalities in England, Belgium, The Netherlands, and France. The maps demonstrate how to conduct a Thermal Comfort Assessment (TCA) systematically to identify heat vulnerabilities and cooling capacity in cities to enable decision-makers to set priorities for action. The comparative analyses of the collated maps also provide a first overview of the current heat resilience state of cities in North-Western Europe.