A great deal of attention has been paid to the performance of international joint ventures (IJVs) and trust has been recognised as a keyfactor influencing it. This paper examines the emergence of trust as a process and develops a process model of trust building in IJVs, which isused to analyse four case studies. The main conclusions are the following: Whereas competence-based trust starts from public information,promissory-based trust and goodwill-based trust are individually orientated and mainly develop through direct personal interaction. Suchinteraction may lead to bonds of friendship between delegates. Before these bonds evolve, trust is mainly based on the perceived self-interestof the partner in the joint venture. When the bonds of friendship dominate, the main source of trust shifts towards emotional commitments.Thus, in the early stages of an IJV, promissory-based trust predominates, and as the joint venture progresses, competence-based trust emerges.Goodwill-based trust is important throughout the process. A commitment to cooperate emerges from initial self-interest. The model is capableof further development and testing.
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Lean Production (LP) can be regarded as a design approach in search of a theoretical foundation. In this paper we show that Lowlands’ Sociotechnical Design Theory (STSL) could function as such a foundation. To reach this goal, we first describe STSL as a system theoretical reformulation of Original Sociotechnical Theory (OSTS). Then, we introduce the Toyota Production System as the origin of LP and the challenge it poses for the academic field of organization design. This academic field should (1) assess LP’s success, (2) generalize it by embedding it in more abstract concepts and theories in order to be able to (3) re-specify it for different manufacturing and non-manufacturing contexts. Next, we give an exposition of STSL as a structural design approach based on developments in system theory. At last, we reformulate lean production in STSL terms and so show that LP is a subcase within the more general theory of STSL. We discuss the merits of both approaches and clarify some misunderstandings of lean both outside and inside the lean community. Embedding LP in the more general language of STSL should enable us to discover similarities and differences, to start a process of mutual learning, to integrate diverse design approaches in a theory of organizational design and to add content to redesign proposals of for example the health care system as proposed by Porter and Teisberg (2006) and Christensen et al. (2009). We quote extensively from the lean literature (to convince our sociotechnical friends) and embed both STSL and LP in the broader literature on organization design. We hope this adds a new perspective to the one given in the Operations Management literature on LP. Again, mutual learning is the goal.
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