The current study investigates the effects of the school lockdowns during school years 2019–2020 and 2020–2021 on the achievement scores of primary school students during the COVID-19 pandemic. We analyzed scores for spelling, reading fluency (i.e., decoding speed), reading comprehension, and mathematics from standardized student tracking systems for 5125 students from 26 primary schools in the urban region of The Hague, the Netherlands. Results showed that students in grades 1 through 3 had significant learning delays after the first lockdown. However, results after the second lockdown showed that most students were able to catch up, compared to students from corresponding grades of cohorts before COVID-19. The magnitude of these positive effects was mostly close to the negative effect of the first lockdown. Apparently, during the second lockdown, schools seemed better prepared and able to deliver more effective home schooling and online instruction. The hypothesis that students’ learning from a low SES home environment will suffer most from the school lockdowns could only partly be confirmed. SES effects at the individual level tended to be mitigated by negative effects of SES at the school level, making SES-related differences between schools less profound. The findings of this study offer a broader perspective to evaluate the effects of long-term school closures. Implications for educational practice and issues of inequality between students are discussed.
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BackgroundThe closing of schools and sports clubs during the COVID-19 lockdown raised questions about the possible impact on children’s motor skill development. Therefore, we compared motor skill development over a one-year period among four different cohorts of primary school children of which two experienced no lockdowns during the study period (control cohorts) and two cohorts experienced one or two lockdowns during the study period (lockdown cohorts).MethodsA total of 992 children from 9 primary schools in Amsterdam (the Netherlands) participated in this study (age 5 – 7; 47.5% boys, 52.5% girls). Their motor skill competence was assessed twice, first in grade 3 (T1) and thereafter in grade 4 (T2). Children in control group 1 and lockdown group 1 were assessed a third time after two years (T3). Motor skill competence was assessed using the 4-Skills Test, which includes 4 components of motor skill: jumping force (locomotion), jumping coordination (coordination), bouncing ball (object control) and standing still (stability). Mixed factorial ANOVA’s were used to analyse our data.ResultsNo significant differences in motor skill development over the study period between the lockdown groups and control groups (p > 0.05) were found, but a difference was found between the two lockdown groups: lockdown group 2 developed significantly better than lockdown group 1 (p = 0.008). While socioeconomic status was an effect modifier, sex and motor ability did not modify the effects of the lockdowns.ConclusionsThe COVID-19 lockdowns in the Netherlands did not negatively affect motor skill development of young children in our study. Due to the complexity of the factors related to the pandemic lockdowns and the dynamic systems involved in motor skill development of children, caution must be taken with drawing general conclusions. Therefore, children’s motor skill development should be closely monitored in the upcoming years and attention should be paid to individual differences.
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Social robots have been introduced in different fields such as retail, health care and education. Primary education in the Netherlands (and elsewhere) recently faced new challenges because of the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns and quarantines including students falling behind and teachers burdened with high workloads. Together with two Dutch municipalities and nine primary schools we are exploring the long-term use of social robots to study how social robots might support teachers in primary education, with a focus on mathematics education. This paper presents an explorative study to define requirements for a social robot math tutor. Multiple focus groups were held with the two main stakeholders, namely teachers and students. During the focus groups the aim was 1) to understand the current situation of mathematics education in the upper primary school level, 2) to identify the problems that teachers and students encounter in mathematics education, and 3) to identify opportunities for deploying a social robot math tutor in primary education from the perspective of both the teachers and students. The results inform the development of social robots and opportunities for pedagogical methods used in math teaching, child-robot interaction and potential support for teachers in the classroom
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In March 2020 schools in The Netherlands closed to contain the spread of Covid-19 virus. Shortly after, schools took to online education. The condensed setting of the Covid-19 situation provided a background to study which learning activities and tools teachers choose in online education and how they use them to promote interaction. Interaction is quintessential to learning but in online education it is not easy to provide room for interaction. Our central research question therefore is how interaction within online education activities change over time. An online longitudinal survey amongst teachers was conducted. The first four rounds took place in the early stages of the lockdowns and shortly after. In total 179 different secondary school teachers participated of whom 16 responded three rounds or more. Most teachers use tools in online education that can facilitate more interaction than necessary for the Instructional Design. This means that improving interaction in online education is more a pedagogical challenge than a technical one. It was also found that teachers who deploy Instructional Designs that require more interaction use more and different tools. However, only few of these tools seem to facilitate the interactive quality the teachers pursued. Over time we saw the interactive quality of Instructional Design and tools converge. We are in awe of the artful way in which some teachers manage to combine the possibilities of different tools to establish high interactive quality in the online learning processes they conduct.
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Nixon and Metiary argue that the notion of protest needs to be included in the global education system as a distinct activity. It needs to take its place alongside other social sciences and humanities courses in the school curricula. They stress that the ability to impact society, to incite societal change, to participate through more means than voting, needs to be taught. It needs to be implemented into the global education system.
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The closing of schools and sports clubs during theCOVID-19 lockdown raised questions about thepossible impact on children’s motor skilldevelopment. Therefore we compared motorcompetence development over a one-year periodamong four different cohorts of primary schoolchildren. A total of 992 children from 9 primaryschools participated in this study (age 5 – 7; 47,5%boys) and were assessed two times, in grade 3 (T1)and in grade 4 (T2). Children in control group 1 and lockdown group 1 were assessed a third time aftertwo years (T3). Motor competence was measuredusing the 4-Skills Test. The mixed factorial ANOVAwith post hoc tests shows no significant differencesin motor development over the study period betweenthe lockdown groups and control groups (p > 0.05),but does show a difference between the twolockdown groups from T1 to T2 (p = 0.008). Whilesocioeconomic status (SES) was a modifier, sex andmotor ability did not modify the effects of thelockdowns. Our data show that the COVID-19lockdowns in the Netherlands did not generallyaffect motor development of young children. Incontrast, many studies have confirmed clear effectsof the pandemic lockdowns on physicalactivity1,2,3. Our study highlights the complexity ofboth motor skill development and the factors relatedto the pandemic lockdowns. We therefore suggestthat children’s motor skill development should beclosely monitored in the upcoming years.Specifically, we should pay attention to individualdifferences since it is still possible that certainchildren are impacted by the pandemic lockdowns.Moreover, long-term effects might emerge in thefuture.References1. de Sá, C. dos S. C., Pombo, A., Luz, C.,Rodrigues, L. P., & Cordovil, R. (2021). Covid-19social isolation in brazil: effects on the physicalactivity routine of families with children. RevistaPaulista de Pediatria, 39, e2020159.2. Hurter, L., McNarry, M., Stratton, G., &Mackintosh, K. (2022). Back to school afterlockdown: The effect of COVID-19 restrictions onchildren’s device-based physical activity metrics.Journal of Sport and Health Science, 11(4), 530–536.3. Moore, S. A., Faulkner, G., Rhodes, R. E.,Brussoni, M., Chulak-Bozzer, T., Ferguson, L. J.,Mitra, R., O’Reilly, N., Spence, J. C., Vanderloo, L.M., & Tremblay, M. S. (2020). Impact of theCOVID-19 virus outbreak on movement and playbehaviours of Canadian children and youth: Anational survey. International Journal of BehavioralNutrition and Physical Activity, 17(1), 85.
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Social robots have been introduced in different fields such as retail, health care and education. Primary education in the Netherlands (and elsewhere) recently faced new challenges because of the COVID-19 pandemic, lockdowns and quarantines including students falling behind and teachers burdened with high workloads. Together with two Dutch municipalities and nine primary schools we are exploring the long-term use of social robots to study how social robots might support teachers in primary education, with a focus on mathematics education. This paper presents an explorative study to define requirements for a social robot math tutor. Multiple focus groups were held with the two main stakeholders, namely teachers and students. During the focus groups the aim was 1) to understand the current situation of mathematics education in the upper primary school level, 2) to identify the problems that teachers and students encounter in mathematics education, and 3) to identify opportunities for deploying a social robot math tutor in primary education from the perspective of both the teachers and students. The results inform the development of social robots and opportunities for pedagogical methods used in math teaching, child-robot interaction and potential support for teachers in the classroom.
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De uitbraak van het COVID-19 virus (i.e., coronavirus) in December 2019 in de Chinese stad Wuhan heeft een grote impact gehad op de manier van leven over de gehele wereld. Op 27 februari 2020 werd de eerste besmetting met het coronavirus in Nederland vastgesteld, waarna het aantal besmettingen snel opliep. Om de verdere verspreiding van het virus zo veel mogelijk te beperken werden er in Nederland – net als in de vrijwel alle andere landen –diverse vrijheid beperkende maatregelen ingesteld. Van 23 maart 2020 tot 1 mei 2020 gold in Nederland een zogenaamde ‘intelligente lockdown’ en werden mensen gevraagd om afstand van elkaar te houden, zo veel mogelijk thuis te blijven en werken, en werden scholen, sportclubs, horeca en winkels gesloten. In de twee jaar na de start van deze intelligente lockdown volgden er verschillende periodes met op- en afschalingen van restricties, waaronder nog twee ‘harde lockdowns’ die ingingen in december 2020 en december 2021. Vanzelfsprekend hebben deze maatregelen een grote invloed gehad op onze manier van leven en werken en hebben er waarschijnlijk nog nooit zoveel Nederlanders tegelijk vanuit huis gewerkt als tijdens de coronacrisis. Dit heeft ook geleid tot veranderingen op het gebied van criminaliteit. In het eerste jaar van de coronapandemie lag het aantal geregistreerde misdrijven in Nederland ongeveer 6 procent lager dan in dezelfde periode in het jaar daarvoor, waarbij de verschillen het grootst waren tijdens de periodes met de strengste maatregelen (i.e., de intelligente lockdown en harde lockdown). Deze daling in geregistreerde criminaliteit was met name duidelijk terug te vinden onder misdrijven die doorgaans gepleegd worden als het slachtoffer niet in zijn of haar eigen huis is, zoals woninginbraak, zakkenrollenrij en fietsendiefstal (Kruisbergen et al., 2021). Voor huiselijk geweld, wat doorgaans binnen het eigen huis(houden) plaatsvindt, werd juist gevreesd voor een toename, maar deze lijkt achterwege te zijn gebleven in Nederland (Coomans et al., 2022). Ook hebben verschillende experts in de media gewezen op de cyberrisico’s van thuiswerken.1 Dit is in het bijzonder voor midden- en kleinbedrijven (mkb) zeer relevant omdat mkb-bedrijven de ruggengraat vormen van de Nederlandse economie (zij zijn verantwoordelijk voor 63% van het Bruto Binnenlands Product, 71% van de werkgelegenheid, en een totale omzet van 1023 miljard euro)2 , terwijl we ook weten dat deze groep bedrijven relatief vaak slachtoffer wordt van cyberaanvallen en weinig middelen ter beschikking heeft om zich hiertegen te wapenen (Leukfeldt, 2018). Tegelijkertijd zijn mkb-bedrijven waarschijnlijk niet goed ingericht op het ondersteunen van (massaal) thuiswerken en hebben daarom in allerijl en met veelal beperkte middelen moeten improviseren om het thuiswerken mogelijk te maken. Dit onderzoek richt zich daarom op de vraag in hoeverre de uitbraak van het coronavirus en de daarmee gepaard gaande toename in thuiswerken gedurende de pandemie geleid hebben tot meer cyberonveiligheid voor zowel burgers als het mkb en wat we hiervan kunnen leren voor de toekomst. Hierbij kijken we naar de aard en omvang van dreigingen en incidenten en naar de impact die incidenten hebben gehad. Dit geeft inzicht in de wijze waarop plotselinge verschuivingen van offline naar online activiteiten leiden tot nieuwe cyberrisico’s en is voor het mkb van groot belang om te kunnen beoordelen welke maatregelen zij kunnen en moeten nemen ten tijde van crises en wat die maatregelen mogen kosten. Uit eerder onderzoek weten we dat mkb-bedrijven weinig inzicht hebben in cyberrisico’s (doordat aard en omvang vaak onduidelijk zijn) en daardoor niet weten welke maatregelen zij moeten treffen (Notte et al., 2019). Daarnaast hebben mkb-bedrijven vaak weinig middelen en kennis in huis om zich goed te kunnen wapenen tegen cybercriminelen. Drie onderzoeksvragen staan dan ook centraal in dit onderzoek: 1) In hoeverre is de aard en omvang van cybercriminaliteit veranderd tijdens de coronapandemie? 2) Wat waren de gevolgen van slachtofferschap van cybercriminaliteit tijdens de coronapandemie? 3) Is er een relatie tussen veranderingen in internetgebruik en slachtofferschap van cybercriminaliteit tijdens de coronapandemie? Om deze vragen te beantwoorden analyseren we in fase 1 van dit onderzoek eerst de bestaande literatuur en interviewen we tien experts van de politie, cybersecuritybedrijven en andere relevante stakeholders. De literatuurstudie en verkennende interviews gebruiken we vervolgens in fase 2 van dit onderzoek om een vragenlijst te ontwikkelen die we hebben uitgezet onder een steekproef van burgers en een steekproef van mkb’ers om de aard, omvang en impact van slachtofferschap in kaart te brengen.3 Hierdoor wordt een uniek beeld verkregen van de effecten van het coronavirus en veranderingen in ons internetgebruik.
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This dissertation describes the dynamics of motor competence (MC) development from early childhood (EC) to middle childhood (MCD). Being motor competent in early childhood creates a window of opportunity for taking part in physical activities later in childhood and adulthood. However, there is a worrying trend in MC development during childhood. This trend shows that, last decades, children struggle more with executing fundamental movement skills (e.g., hopping, dribbling, balancing, throwing and catching) and that general motor fitness levels of children are decreasing. A delay in MC development during childhood has a negative impact on the general health status later in life. Therefore, it is important to support young children to develop their MC. The main research question of this dissertation was: How can motor competence be promoted as efficient and effective as possible in early childhood by sport professionals? Chapter 2 showed that MC development from early to middle childhood proceeds with variation. The majority of the children had a stable ‘normal’ or increasing ‘high’ development of MC over time. However, a concerning level of 18.2% of the young children showed an undesirable pattern (i.e., a negative course of motor development over time and a ‘low’ MQ score during the final measurement) of MC development as they grow older. Chapters 3 and 4 showed that characteristics of the social and physical home environment and direct living environment were associated with MC disparities during early childhood. Both parenting practices and parental PA-involved behaviours were relevant modifiable factors. For example, stronger parental active transportation routines and PA parental practices decreased the odds of a lower MC. Also, the presence of a home garden decreased the likelihood of children being classified as low motor competent. With regard to gender differences, girls showed lower levels of MC compared to boys. Special attention should also be paid to obese children as they experience less enjoyment of PA compared with normal weighted peers (chapter 3). Excessive body weight is also a risk factor associated with an undesirable MC development, just like lack of sports participation (chapter 5). Intervention strategies (chapter 6) incorporating all fundamental movement skills with a great variety of activities for at least 3 to 4 times a week seem to be most effective to stimulate MC development. Methodological and didactical aspects like deliberate practice and play should be implemented together with training and coaching sessions for sport professionals to increase the effectiveness of the interventions. With respect to the efficiency of promoting MC development, policy makers and sport professionals should pay more attention on early childhood and especially focus on those children at risk for a delay in MC development. So, overweighted children and children not participating in organized sports should be given more attention by sport professionals. Additionally, the effectiveness of MC interventions can be increased by making use of the home environment, childcare context and school context of young children. Sport professionals can act as connectors between parents, school, and sports clubs.
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Leesvaardigheid wordt gezien als een sleutelcompetentie voor het basisonderwijs en is een sterke voorspeller van toekomstig maatschappelijk en academisch succes. Gedurende alle jaren van het basisonderwijs wordt daarom sterk ingezet op leesonderwijs op school. De leerkracht speelt hierin een grote rol, bijvoorbeeld bij het inoefenen van de verschillende vaardigheden die bij leren lezen komen kijken. Toen de scholen in Nederland tijdelijk werden gesloten en de leerlingen noodgedwongen afstandsonderwijs volgden (van 16 maart tot 25 april 2020), dienden leerkrachten in Nederland in zeer korte tijd en zonder gedegen onderwijskundig ontwerp, hun grotendeels klassikale face-to-face onderwijs om te zetten in (digitaal) onderwijs op afstand. In dit onderzoeksproject is aan de hand van de ervaringen van leerkrachten (in opleiding) onderzocht hoe het leesonderwijs op afstand was vormgegeven en wat we hiervan kunnen leren met betrekking tot toekomstige keuzes voor afstandsonderwijs.
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