IL22 is an important cytokine involved in the intestinal defense mechanisms against microbiome. By using ileum-derived organoids, we show that the expression of anti-microbial peptides (AMPs) and anti-viral peptides (AVPs) can be induced by IL22. In addition, we identified a bacterial and a viral route, both leading to IL22 production by T cells, but via different pathways. Bacterial products, such as LPS, induce enterocyte-secreted SAA1, which triggers the secretion of IL6 in fibroblasts, and subsequently IL22 in T cells. This IL22 induction can then be enhanced by macrophage-derived TNFα in two ways: by enhancing the responsiveness of T cells to IL6 and by increasing the expression of IL6 by fibroblasts. Viral infections of intestinal cells induce IFNβ1 and subsequently IL7. IFNβ1 can induce the expression of IL6 in fibroblasts and the combined activity of IL6 and IL7 can then induce IL22 expression in T cells. We also show that IL22 reduces the expression of viral entry receptors (e.g. ACE2, TMPRSS2, DPP4, CD46 and TNFRSF14), increases the expression of anti-viral proteins (e.g. RSAD2, AOS, ISG20 and Mx1) and, consequently, reduces the viral infection of neighboring cells. Overall, our data indicates that IL22 contributes to the innate responses against both bacteria and viruses.
DOCUMENT
• Our research suggest that anthocyanins are promising anti-bacterial agents • The antimicrobial effects are highly dependent on the source of the anthocyanin-extract • Rose-anthocyanins appear to posses the strongest anti-bacterial effects • Gram-positive strains appear to be more sensitive compared to gram-negative strains • Future research efforts should focus on different anthocyanin entities
DOCUMENT
Manure application can spread antimicrobial resistance (AMR) from manure to soil and surface water. This study evaluated the role of the soil texture on the dynamics of antimicrobial resistance genes (ARGs) in soils and surrounding surface waters. Six dairy farms with distinct soil textures (clay, sand, and peat) were sampled at different time points after the application of manure, and three representative ARGs sul1, erm(B), and tet(W) were quantified with qPCR. Manuring initially increased levels of erm(B) by 1.5 ± 0.5 log copies/kg of soil and tet(W) by 0.8 ± 0.4 log copies/kg across soil textures, after which levels gradually declined. In surface waters from clay environments, regardless of the ARG, the gene levels initially increased by 2.6 ± 1.6 log copies/L, after which levels gradually declined. The gene decay in soils was strongly dependent on the type of ARG (erm(B) < tet(W) < sul1; half-lives of 7, 11, and 75 days, respectively), while in water, the decay was primarily dependent on the soil texture adjacent to the sampled surface water (clay < peat < sand; half-lives of 2, 6, and 10 days, respectively). Finally, recovery of ARG levels was predicted after 29–42 days. The results thus showed that there was not a complete restoration of ARGs in soils between rounds of manure application. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that rather than showing similar dynamics of decay, factors such as the type of ARG and soil texture drive the ARG persistence in the environment.
MULTIFILE
