This dissertation focuses on the question how money mules are recruited and which mechanisms play a role. Money mules are people who receive money from victims of online fraud. They are an indispensable link in the commission of financial-economic cybercrimes, such as phishing and bank helpdesk fraud, because they break the financial trail from victims to core members. The crucial role of money mules in the crime script and the possible consequences for young money mules themselves make them a valuable target group for scientific research. Almost no empirical research has been conducted into money mules and the involvement mechanisms of cybercrime. However, this knowledge is necessary for the development and application of prevention measures: interventions aimed at money mules disrupt the execution of various forms of online fraud, which can reduce victimization of cybercrime among citizens and businesses. In total, the dissertation consists of six empirical chapters, in which different research methods were used. This includes questionnaires and expert interviews, but also more unique and innovative methods such as online field experiments and analysis of police investigations into cybercriminal networks. The dissertation shows that money mules - still - form a crucial link in the world of financial-economic cybercrime. It is clear that this phenomenon manifests itself in different ways over time: online bank accounts, international bank accounts and crypto wallets are currently popular among cybercriminal networks because they offer even more anonymity than bank accounts at large traditional banks. This also means that money mules are also recruited for their identification cards instead of their bank card, which offenders use to open up accounts for themselves. It can be concluded that the social environment of money mules forms a criminal opportunity structure. Money mules are approached via-via and actively addressed; online on social media such as Instagram and Telegram but also offline on the street, at school or at the metro station. Social relationships therefore offer cybercriminal networks access to co-offenders, including money mules, and can explain why young people become involved in the world of cybercrime. Financial motivations play a role here, because money mules often look up to the luxurious lifestyle of criminals and give up bank account details in exchange for compensation. Risk perceptions regarding the likelihood of being caught and the consequences of money muling are low and money mules justify the criminal behavior. In addition to financial considerations, some recruiters also exert pressure or even threaten with violence. This reflects the heterogeneous nature of the target group and makes it clear that various involvement mechanisms play a role.
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The present study aims at understanding how individuals engage in organized crime activities. Processes responsible for organized crime involvement are still poorly understood, particularly for those who become engaged only later in life. In-depth interviews with 16 inmates, all convicted of participation in organized crime and incarcerated in Dutch prisons, illuminate how individuals at different life stages become involved in crime in general, and in organized crime activities in particular. Most participants we interviewed turn out to have experienced an adult onset in crime. Their involvement mechanisms are analysed and compared with mechanisms applicable to offenders with an early start in crime. It was found that offenders with an early start in crime have a wealth of opportunities and criminal contacts, whereas individuals who become involved in crime later in life are exposed to crime opportunities in conventional settings.
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Doelstellingen De mate van betrokkenheid van jonge gebruikers bij wervingsadvertenties voor geldezels op Instagram onderzoeken. Methoden Drie advertenties die de belangrijkste mechanismen voor betrokkenheid bij cybercriminaliteit weerspiegelen en gericht waren op Nederlandse gebruikersclusters werden op twee Instagram-plaatsingen geplaatst. Door middel van dit quasi-experimentele 3 × 2 factorial design konden we het bereik en de weergaven van de advertenties, de doorklikratio's, het geslacht van de deelnemers en de temporele verdelingen van de gebruikersbetrokkenheid analyseren. Resultaten De analyse toont aan dat tot 3% van de jonge gebruikers zich bezighield met de advertenties, vooral met advertenties die een luxe levensstijl promoten en neutralisatietechnieken gebruiken. Mannen waren vaker betrokken en 's nachts werd er meer geklikt. Conclusies Sommige jonge Instagram-gebruikers lijken geneigd om geld te verdienen via hun bankpas en lopen het risico om online betrokken te raken bij cybercriminaliteit. We moedigen toekomstig onderzoek aan om het gebruik van sociale media in criminologische studies verder te onderzoeken. ENGLISH Objectives Examine the level of engagement of young users with money mule recruitment ads on Instagram. Methods Three ads reflecting key cybercrime involvement mechanisms and targeting Dutch user clusters were run on two Instagram placements. By means of this quasi-experimental 3 × 2 factorial design, we were able to analyze the reach and views of the ads, click-through rates, gender of the participants, and temporal distributions of user engagement. Results Mimicking actual recruitment environments, analysis shows that up to 3% of young users engaged with the ads, especially those promoting a luxury lifestyle and using neutralization techniques. Men were more likely to engage, and click-through rates were higher at night. Conclusions Some young Instagram users seem prone to making money through their bank cards and risk becoming involved in cybercrime online. We encourage future research to explore further the use of social media in criminological studies. This is a post-peer-review, pre-copyedit version of an article published in Journal of Experimental Criminology. The final authenticated version is available online at: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-022-09537-7
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